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title: an in-depth guide to python typing for return types
introduction:
python, being a dynamically-typed language, allows developers to write flexible and expressive code. however, as projects grow in size and complexity, the lack of explicit type information can lead to potential issues and make code harder to understand. python 3.5 introduced the typing module, which allows developers to add type hints for function return types. this tutorial will guide you through the basics of using python typing for specifying return types.
1. installing the typing module:
ensure that you have python 3.5 or later installed. the typing module is part of the standard library, so no additional installation is required.
2. basic return type annotation:
to annotate the return type of a function, use the "-" syntax followed by the type. here's a simple example:
in this example, the add_numbers function takes two integers as parameters and returns an integer. the type hint - int clarifies the expected return type.
3. optional return types:
if a function can return none, use optional from the typing module. here's an example:
in this case, the divide_numbers function may return a float or none in case of division by zero.
4. union return types:
use the union type to specify that a function can return values of multiple types. example:
in this example, the square_root function can return either a float or a string, depending on the input.
5. callable return types:
to specify that a function returns another function, use the callable type. example:

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