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Sufism: The Doctrine So Controversial, Scholars Still Whisper About It: “All Existence Is One.”

Between the 8th and 13th centuries, Sufism emerged as the defining mystical current of the Islamic world, evolving from a loose movement of ascetic seekers into a highly organized and culturally influential spiritual tradition. Rooted in the pursuit of direct experience of the Divine, early Sufis rejected the increasing materialism of the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, advocating simplicity, repentance, and constant remembrance of God. Figures such as Hasan al-Basri and Rābiʿa al-ʿAdawiyya shaped this formative era, emphasizing inner purity and a love-driven relationship with the Divine.

By the 10th and 11th centuries, Sufism entered its classical phase. Manuals like Kashf al-Mahjub and Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya articulated a structured spiritual psychology of stations and states, while Baghdad became a major center of contemplative thought. Al-Ghazālī’s integration of Sufism into Sunni orthodoxy was a turning point; his writings established that the mystical path was not a deviation from Islamic law, but its deepest interior expression. This synthesis legitimized Sufism socially and intellectually.

The 11th–13th centuries saw Sufism reorganize into formal brotherhoods (ṭarīqas) with spiritual lineages, lodges, and rigorous communal disciplines. Orders such as the Qādiriyya, Chishtiyya, Suhrawardiyya, Yesevi, and later the Mevlevi spread across the Islamic world, using poetry, music, ritual movement, and ethical training to transmit their teachings. Charismatic figures shaped this flourishing:
• Al-Hallāj, whose ecstatic cry “I am the Truth” embodied the annihilation of self in God and made him a martyr of divine love.
• Ibn al-ʿArabi, the philosopher-mystic who articulated the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujūd, framing all existence as manifestations of Divine Being.
• Rumi, whose encounter with Shams-i Tabrizi ignited the poetic masterpiece Masnavi and inspired the Mevlevi order’s iconic whirling ritual.

Sufi practice centered on inducing states of divine presence through dhikr (rhythmic remembrance), samāʿ (spiritual concerts), poetry recitation, breathing techniques, and ritual dance. These practices often produced trance-like experiences interpreted as divine union. As Sufism expanded into regions like Central Asia and Anatolia, it absorbed elements from local shamanic traditions—circle dances, drumming, ecstatic chanting, and saint-veneration—reshaping indigenous spirituality into Islamic mystical forms without compromising monotheism.

Beyond its inward goal of ego-annihilation (fanāʾ) and subsistence in God (baqāʾ), Sufism became a major social force. Lodges acted as centers for education, charity, diplomacy, and cultural integration, easing conversions and fostering community cohesion. Festivals at saints’ shrines united diverse populations, while Sufi ethics influenced everyday Muslim life.

By the end of the 13th century, Sufism had transformed Islam’s spiritual landscape—democratizing intimate access to the Divine, producing enduring poetry and philosophy, and weaving local cultures into a universal mystical framework grounded in love, unity, and the living presence of God.