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The history of Ireland is long and complex, shaped by waves of migration, conquest, and cultural transformation. Here’s an overview of key periods in Irish history:

Ancient Ireland (Prehistory – 400 AD)
• Prehistoric Settlements: The first humans arrived in Ireland around 8000 BC, during the Mesolithic period. Neolithic settlers (circa 4000 BC) introduced farming and built megalithic structures like Newgrange.
• Celtic Influence: By around 500 BC, the Celts arrived, bringing their language, art, and customs. This era saw the rise of tribal kingdoms and a society governed by warrior elites and druids.
• Early Christianity: St. Patrick, traditionally credited with bringing Christianity to Ireland in the 5th century, played a major role in replacing pagan traditions.

Early Medieval Ireland (400–1169)
• Golden Age of Irish Monasticism: From the 6th to 9th centuries, Irish monasteries became centers of learning and preserved classical knowledge. Monks like St. Columba spread Christianity to Scotland and beyond.
• Viking Raids & Settlements: From the late 8th century, Vikings raided and later established settlements like Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick.
• Battle of Clontarf (1014): High King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings and their Irish allies, reducing Norse influence but not eliminating it entirely.

Norman Invasion (1169–1536)
• Anglo-Norman Conquest: In 1169, Norman lords, invited by an Irish king, began their conquest. By the early 13th century, they controlled much of Ireland.
• The Lordship of Ireland: In 1171, King Henry II of England asserted his authority, making Ireland a feudal lordship under English control.
• Gaelic Resurgence: Over time, Norman lords intermarried with the Irish, adopting Gaelic customs, leading to the decline of direct English control.

Tudor & Stuart Conquest (1536–1691)
• English Reassertion: The 16th and 17th centuries saw brutal campaigns by English monarchs (Henry VIII, Elizabeth I, and James I) to subdue Ireland.
• Plantations: The Crown seized Irish lands, giving them to English and Scottish settlers, particularly in Ulster, leading to tensions between Protestants and Catholics.
• Rebellions & Wars: The Nine Years’ War (1594–1603) and the Cromwellian Conquest (1649–1653) devastated Ireland. The Williamite War (1689–1691) ended with Protestant dominance.

Colonial Ireland & Penal Laws (1691–1801)
• Protestant Ascendancy: Ireland was ruled by a Protestant elite, with harsh laws restricting Catholic rights.
• 18th-Century Unrest: Groups like the United Irishmen (inspired by the American and French Revolutions) sought independence.
• Rebellion of 1798: A failed uprising sought to overthrow British rule, supported by the French.

Union with Britain & 19th Century (1801–1922)
• Act of Union (1801): Ireland was fully integrated into the United Kingdom.
• Great Famine (1845–1852): A devastating potato blight killed a million people and forced another million to emigrate.
• Rise of Nationalism: The 19th century saw the emergence of movements like the Irish Parliamentary Party (seeking Home Rule) and the Fenians (seeking full independence).

Irish Independence & Partition (1922)
• Easter Rising (1916): A failed rebellion in Dublin inspired greater nationalist sentiment.
• War of Independence (1919–1921): The Irish Republican Army (IRA) fought British forces, leading to a truce.
• Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921): Created the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.

Modern Ireland (1922–Present)
• Civil War (1922–1923): A split over the treaty led to conflict between pro- and anti-treaty forces.
• Republic of Ireland (1949): Ireland officially left the British Commonwealth and became fully independent.
• The Troubles (1960s–1998): Sectarian conflict in Northern Ireland between unionists (Protestants) and nationalists (Catholics), ending with the Good Friday Agreement.
• Economic Growth & EU Membership: Ireland joined the EU in 1973 and saw major economic growth, becoming a modern, prosperous nation.

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