Cognitive Biases - The Misinformation Effect - False Memory

The misinformation effect refers to a type of memory impairment caused by the introduction of misleading information. Essentially, the misleading information becomes incorporated into the memory of the past event.
The work of psychologist Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues has demonstrated that the questions asked after witnessing an event can influence a person's memory of that event. In other words, if a question contains misleading information, it can distort the memory of the event,
In the famous experiment conducted by Loftus, participants were shown video footage of a traffic accident. After watching the clip, participants were asked a number of questions about what they had observed,
One of the questions asked was, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" In some instances, however, a subtle change was made; participants were instead asked how fast the cars were going when they "smashed into" each other. Researchers discovered that using the word "smashed" instead of "hit" could change how the participants remembered the accident.
A week later, the participants were once again asked a series of questions, including "Did you see broken glass?" Most of the participants correctly answered no. But those who had been asked the "smashed" version of the question in the initial interview were more likely to incorrectly believe that they had indeed seen broken glass.
While it was a relatively minor change in how the question was asked, it significantly changed how witnesses recalled the event. This demonstrates how susceptible memory is to the effects of misinformation.

Misinformation Effect Theories
Blending of memories: One explanation is that the original information and the misleading information presented after the fact get blended together in the person's memory.
Replacement of memories: Another possibility is that the misleading information actually overwrites the original memory of the event.
Retrieval of memories: Researchers have also suggested that since the misleading information is more recent in memory, it tends to be easier to retrieve.
Filling of memory gaps: In some cases, the pertinent data from the original event may never have been encoded into memory in the first place. So, when misleading information is presented, it is incorporated into the mental narrative to fill in these gaps in memory.
Factors Influencing the Misinformation Effect
Discussing the Event With Other Witnesses following an event can distort a person's original memory. Their reports might conflict with the original memory of an event, and the new information might reshape or distort a witness's original memory of the events as they occurred.

Reading news stories and watching television reports of an accident or event can also contribute to misinformation. People often forget the source of information, which means they might mistakenly believe that a piece of information was something they observed personally when, in reality, it was something they heard in a post-event news report.
Repeated Exposure to Misinformation
The more often people are exposed to misleading information, the more likely they are to believe that the misinformation was part of the original event.
The Passage of Time
If the misleading information is presented after some time gap, it is likely to be much more accessible and easier to retrieve, effectively blocking the retrieval of the original, correct information, which may have faded in due course.

So, How to Reduce the Misinformation Effect
Writing down your memory of an important event immediately after it happens is one strategy that might help minimize the effects.
Keep in mind that even this strategy can introduce subtle errors, and writing these errors down can further cement them in your memory.
Being aware that your memory can be influenced is another helpful and important strategy. While you might have a good memory, understand that everyone is susceptible to the misinformation effect.
How to Distinguish False Memories
Some argue that there is no way to distinguish a false memory from a real one.
If there is video footage of the event, reviewing it can help you decide if your memories are real or if they could be false. It may also be beneficial to consider other people's recollections of the event. If they are all saying the same thing, and it is different than what you remember, the misinformation effect may be at play.
Anyone can experience the misinformation effect. However, being aware of this can help you be more alert when recalling an event, potentially reducing your susceptibility to creating false memories.

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