Скачать или смотреть Part 2: Methodologies of Structuralism Literary Theory, linguistics, literary theory, Saussure

In structuralism, the concept of "underlying structures" refers to the fundamental, often hidden systems or frameworks that govern the organization and meaning of cultural phenomena, language, social practices, and other aspects of human life. Structuralism is a theoretical approach that emerged in the early to mid-20th century, heavily influenced by linguistics, anthropology, and philosophy, particularly through the work of figures like Ferdinand de Saussure, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes.
1. Language and Saussure's Theory:
The most prominent field where the idea of underlying structures is evident is in linguistics. #Ferdinand de Saussure, a foundational figure in structuralism, argued that language is a system of signs that operate through a set of relationships, not through isolated words or sounds. According to Saussure, each word (signifier) has meaning only in relation to other words in the system.
Key concepts in Saussure's structuralism:
#Signifier: The "sound" or "written word" (e.g., the word "tree").
#Signified: The mental concept associated with the signifier (e.g., the concept of a tree).
2. Structuralism in Anthropology (#Lévi-Strauss):
#Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralism to anthropology and cultural studies, particularly focusing on myths, kinship systems, and social organization. He argued that the human mind organizes cultural and social phenomena into binary oppositions, such as good/evil, life/death, raw/cooked, and nature/culture.
Underlying structures in anthropology: For Lévi-Strauss, the "underlying structures" are the mental frameworks or cognitive patterns shared across cultures that shape human society.
3. Roland Barthes and Semiotics:
Roland Barthes extended structuralism into literary and cultural criticism, particularly in his analysis of myths, texts, and media. For Barthes, cultural myths (or ideological meanings) are constructed through language, signs, and symbols.
#Underlying structure in semiotics: Barthes argued that myths are created from a deeper level of structural relationships that are not immediately visible. The structure of a #myth is not just a story but an underlying system of meanings that can be decoded.
Denotation: The literal meaning of a sign (e.g., a photograph of a tree).
Connotation: The cultural or ideological meaning attached to the sign (e.g., the tree might symbolize life or nature).
Myth: The second-order system of meaning, where connotations combine to form cultural myths (e.g., the tree could symbolize ecological harmony in environmentalist discourse).
4. Underlying Structures in Society and Culture:
In general, structuralism emphasizes that human behavior, culture, and society can be understood through the analysis of underlying structures. These structures, although not always visible or conscious, shape how individuals think, act, and communicate.
5. Criticism of Structuralism:
Critics of #structuralism, particularly poststructuralists like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, argue that these underlying structures are not as stable or universal as structuralists claim. Binary Oppositions: Lévi-Strauss believed that the human mind organizes experiences into binary oppositions, such as life/death, good/evil, raw/cooked, and nature/culture. These oppositions are foundational to how people think and understand the world. Mythology: Lévi-Strauss analyzed myths from different cultures. binary oppositions. Kinship, Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud’s structural model of the psyche is made up of three components: Id: The instinctual, unconscious part of the psyche that seeks immediate gratification. Ego: The rational, conscious part that mediates between the desires of the id and the realities of the external world. Superego: The moral component that internalizes societal values and norms. Life/Death, Good/Evil, Order/Chaos, Raw/Cooked, Culture/Nature, Male/Female, Light/Dark, Heaven/Earth. 1. Descent Systems
Descent systems define how individuals trace their ancestry and how this shapes their social identity, inheritance, and marriage rules. There are several types of descent systems:
#Unilineal Descent; This is the most common form of descent system, where descent is traced through one side of the family—either the father (#patrilineal) or the mother (#matrilineal). Patrilineal Descent: Bilinear Titchener's theory of structuralism focused on analyzing the basic components of consciousness using introspection. He proposed that by identifying the fundamental elements of experience—sensations, images, and feelings—psychologists could uncover the underlying structure of the mind. While structuralism was eventually overshadowed by other psychological approaches, its emphasis on scientific observation and the search for the building blocks of experience played an important role in the early development of modern psychology.