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The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, represented the continuation of the Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople, spanning Late Antiquity through the Middle Ages. While the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, the Byzantine Empire persisted until Constantinople's conquest by the Ottoman Empire in 1453. Throughout much of its history, the Byzantine Empire was the dominant economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean. Although it's commonly referred to as the Byzantine Empire, this term arose only after its collapse. The Byzantines called their state the "Roman Empire" and identified themselves as "Romans." Due to the capital's relocation from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity, and the increased use of Greek over Latin, historians often differentiate between the earlier "Roman Empire" and the later "Byzantine Empire."

During the earlier Pax Romana period, the western regions of the Roman Empire became increasingly Latinized, while the eastern regions retained their Hellenistic influences. This cultural divergence continued after Constantine I (r. 324–337) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalized Christianity. Christianity became the state religion under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), with other religious practices prohibited. Greek gradually supplanted Latin for administrative purposes.

The Byzantine Empire went through various cycles of decline and recovery, reaching its zenith during Justinian I's reign (r. 527–565), when he briefly recaptured significant parts of Italy and the western Mediterranean coast. However, devastating wars with Persia and the outbreak of plague severely weakened the empire, paving the way for the early Muslim conquests that resulted in the loss of its wealthiest provinces—Egypt and Syria—to the Rashidun Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate took Africa in 698, but the empire regained stability under the Isaurian dynasty. The Macedonian dynasty later led a two-century renaissance, until the empire's defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This loss initiated a period of decline, with civil wars and Seljuk invasions leading to significant territorial losses. The empire recovered somewhat during the Komnenian restoration, and Constantinople remained the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.

The Byzantine Empire's decline accelerated in 1204, when Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade, splitting the empire into various Greek and Latin states. Though Constantinople was retaken in 1261, the reconstituted empire's power was regional. The Ottomans gradually annexed its territories through wars in the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Following its fall, many refugees fled to Italy and other parts of Europe, contributing to the Renaissance. The fall of Constantinople is often considered the transition point between the Middle Ages and the early modern period.

Nomenclature:
Despite the modern use of "Byzantine Empire," its inhabitants identified as Romans. Their Islamic neighbors called their territory "Bilād al-Rūm," or "land of the Romans." Medieval Western Europe often referred to them as "Greeks," with connotations of effeminacy and deception.