Скачать или смотреть A History of India

The Indian subcontinent (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh) has Himalayan peaks, fertile plains, coastal deltas, and deserts. Himalaya formed from tectonic collision, shaping rivers like the Ganga and Indus. The Khyber Pass served as gateway for traders and invaders from Central Asia. Seasonal monsoons brought rains vital for farming and dictated sailing schedules. Environmental variety produced many languages, societies, and economies that coexisted without ever being fully united.

Early Peoples and Adivasi

Indigenous Adivasi descend from the first humans who left Africa over 60,000 years ago. For millennia they practiced hunting, fishing, and shifting farming, maintaining relatively equal societies. Oral traditions preserve clan histories tied to rivers, hills, or forests. With time, forests shrank; many were absorbed into caste hierarchies as laborers or displaced onto poor lands. Today they remain marginalized (8.6% of India’s population), yet preserve identity and fight for land rights.

Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE)

Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira reveal straight streets, drainage systems, brick houses, wells, and granaries. Thousands of carved seals, toys, figurines, plus an undeciphered script, hint at beliefs and trade. Evidence of exchange with Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf shows early globalization. Decline likely from river changes, flooding, and resource stress, but people spread east, shaping later cultures.

Vedic Age and Hindu Traditions (1500–500 BCE)

Rig Veda hymns honored deities; priests gained authority through ritual. The Varna system divided society into Brahmin (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishya (farmers/merchants), and Shudra (laborers). Later thousands of jatis fixed identity by birth. Epics such as the Ramayana (c. 500 BCE–200 CE) praised loyalty and justice; the Mahabharata (compiled 400 BCE–400 CE) revealed human flaws and dilemmas. The Bhagavad Gita (c. 200 BCE) urged duty with detachment. Hinduism emerged as diverse and adaptable, enduring through sects, practices, and philosophies.

Jainism and Buddhism (6th century BCE)

Jainism, taught by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed ahimsa (non-violence), vows of truth, restraint, and detachment; Digambara & Svetambara sects emerged later. Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE), offered the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, teaching desire causes suffering and liberation lies in compassion and balance. Both challenged priestly dominance, appealed to ordinary people, and spread abroad—Buddhism especially to Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, and Japan.

Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321–297 BCE) forged the first large empire with administration, taxation, and armies. Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE), after the bloody Kalinga war (c. 260 BCE), embraced Buddhism and moral rule. Edicts carved on rocks and pillars urged tolerance and welfare; he built roads, wells, and trees to support travelers.

Gupta Empire (320–550 CE)

Known as a Golden Age, it encouraged Sanskrit literature, mathematics (concept of zero), astronomy, and temples. Decline came with invasions of Huns by 550 CE.

Islamic Rule (8th–16th centuries)

Early raids by Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030 CE) were followed by conquest by Muhammad Ghuri (12th c. CE). The Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206 CE. Rulers often rose from Mamluk (slave-soldier) backgrounds; Persianate culture blended with Indian. Sufi saints spread Islam through devotion, music, and farming networks in Punjab and Bengal.

Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE)

Founded by Babur after victory at Panipat in 1526 CE. Akbar (r. 1556–1605 CE) expanded it into a vast, wealthy state, encouraging religious debates and abolishing some taxes on non-Muslims. Jahangir (r. 1605–1627 CE) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658 CE) continued expansion; Taj Mahal built 1632–1653 CE. Decline set in under Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707 CE) whose long wars drained resources. Marathas under Shivaji (1630–1680 CE) resisted and built a resilient state.

European Entry & Colonial Rule (1498–1947 CE)

Vasco da Gama’s arrival in 1498 CE opened sea trade; Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British competed. The East India Company gained dominance after 1757 victory at Plassey; its private army ruled until the 1857 revolt. After the uprising, the British Crown ruled directly (1858–1947 CE), reshaping law, education, and economy, while exploiting resources.

Independence & Partition (20th century)

Indian National Congress founded 1885 CE became mass movement under Gandhi (1869–1948 CE), using satyagraha, boycotts, and fasts. In 1947 CE independence came but Partition divided India and Pakistan, causing violence and displacement. In 1971 CE Bangladesh emerged after civil war in East Pakistan, supported by India. States mixed democracy with authoritarianism; India and Pakistan fought wars (1947, 1965, 1971, 1999) and became nuclear powers (1974 India, 1998 Pakistan).