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Modernity, social change, and the birth of sociology are among the most important themes in understanding the foundations of sociology. This lecture provides a clear and structured explanation of how sociology emerged as a response to the revolutionary changes that transformed European society between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries.

Before the Renaissance and Enlightenment, Europe was dominated by feudalism, religious orthodoxy, and aristocratic privilege. Society was largely agrarian, with rigid hierarchies and little scope for individual freedom or social mobility. This period is often referred to as the “Dark Ages.”

The Renaissance and the Enlightenment, however, brought a new wave of thought that valued science, rationality, and human progress. Faith in reason challenged religious dogma, while democratic ideals questioned monarchy and privilege. This project of modernity introduced secularism, modern education, representative democracy, technological progress, and even new family forms such as the nuclear family.

Industrialization further reshaped Europe by creating cities, factories, and a new middle class. But it also led to poverty, slums, and harsh working conditions. Liberal democracy promised freedom but also brought instability, as witnessed in France. The pace of change was so rapid and complex that philosophy and theology alone could not explain it. There was a pressing need for a new science of society.

It was in this context that early thinkers like Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte laid the foundations of sociology. Saint-Simon envisioned a “social physics,” while Comte coined the term sociology and is remembered as the Father of Sociology. These pioneers sought to systematically study society just as natural scientists studied the physical world.

The intellectual environment was equally influential. Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu, Locke, Voltaire, and Rousseau emphasized reason, liberty, and equality. Empirical methods such as surveys and analogies from natural sciences, including Darwin’s theory of evolution, provided sociology with the tools and perspectives to grow as a discipline.

A decisive historical moment was the French Revolution of 1789. It overthrew feudal estates, challenged aristocratic privilege, and introduced the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. This upheaval, combined with industrialization and intellectual critique, created a pressing need to understand and manage the rapid transformations of society.

Thus, sociology was born out of modernity, industrialization, and revolution. It is not just a discipline but a systematic attempt to explain, critique, and guide societies undergoing change. For UPSC aspirants, especially those with Sociology as an optional, understanding these origins is crucial for both prelims and mains preparation.

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